‘The ultimate goal of reading is comprehension: for the reader to reconstruct the mental world of the writer. As skilled readers, this usually feels pretty effortless, and comprehension flows naturally as we read along. This sense of ease is misleading, however, as it belies the complexity of what we do as we read, even when a text is simple and straight forward. A whole range of cognitive and linguistic operations area at play, from identifying individual words through to making inferences about situations that are not fully described in the text.” (Nation, 2019, p. 47)
Nation, K. (2019). Children’s reading difficulties, language, and reflections on the simple view of reading. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 24(1), 47–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/19404158.2019.
Reading Comprehension
‘Reading comprehension is not a single entity that can be explained by a unified cognitive model. Instead, it is the orchestrated product of a set of linguistic and cognitive processes operating on text and interacting with background knowledge, features of the text, and the purpose and goals of the reading situation.’
(Castles, Anne & Rastle, Kathleen & Nation, Kate. (2018). Ending the Reading Wars: Reading Acquisition From Novice to Expert. Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 19. 5-51. 10.1177/1529100618772271)
Scarborough’s Reading Rope includes several language comprehension components including:
- Background Knowledge
- Vocabulary
- Verbal reasoning skills, including the ability to make inferences and understand abstract language such as metaphors and similes
- Knowledge of language structures including syntax and semantics
- Literacy Knowledge, the understanding of print concepts, different text formats and genres.
Research has highlighted the relationships among these components, and how they interact and support one another. It is critical to remember that each requires explicit instruction, and each can independently or in collaboration with one another impact reading comprehension.
The relationship between the 2 major domains of the reading rope, changes over time. It is after third grade, or when the word recognition skills have developed proficiently, that readers are able to focus on comprehending written language (text). Now the language comprehension strands become the dominant process in reading comprehension. It is through the development of academic language comprehension in the primary years of schooling, that the foundations for success in high school education are laid (Vellutino, Tunmer, Jaccard, & Chen, 2007).
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325710300_Ending_the_Reading_Wars_Reading_Acquisition_From_Novice_to_Expert
Meaning Creation
The RAND Reading Study Group Report succinctly describes reading comprehension as the “process of simultaneously extracting and constructing meaning through interaction and involvement with written language.” (Snow, 2002)
(Snow, Catherine, Reading for Understanding: Toward an R&D Program in Reading Comprehension. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2002. https://www.rand.org/pubs/monograph_reports/MR1465.html)
Reading for Understanding: Toward an R&D Program in Reading Comprehension | RAND
Reading Comprehension refers to understanding the meaning of a passage and the context in which the words occur. It depends on various underlying components including decoding (the ability to translate words in print into speech), knowledge of word meanings (vocabulary), fluency, the ability to understand and interpret spoken language, and knowledge of text structure.
The Simple View of Reading model and Scarborough’s Reading Rope clearly illustrate, that both language comprehension and word reading/ word recognition skills support the development of reading comprehension. Difficulty in lifting the words from the page (word reading) limits reading comprehension in the early stages of learning to read. However, as reading connected text becomes more fluent across the grade levels, and self-teaching (David Share, 1995) plays a role in ongoing word level learning, students rely more on language comprehension to comprehend what is read.
The goal of comprehension instruction is for students to gain understanding (meaning) from written text, allowing them to access learning in all subjects throughout their schooling and in life beyond.
The vitally important role of the teacher is to provide explicit, sequential and cumulative instruction that is informed and responsive to each student’s needs as they move from novice to expert. A role that requires a deep understanding of all the components involved in the teaching of reading and a role that is informed by research and science.
The Skilled Reader
‘Skilled reading is the fluent execution and coordination of text comprehension and word recognition’ (Scarborough, 2001. p.98)
A skilled reader can consistently access and connect the knowledge they possess with the print that they read. They are automatic word decoders who can access and independently develop an expansive sight word vocabulary.
Skilled readers can combine inferences not directly found in the text (world knowledge) with new text to construct meaning (Meaning Creation). They can skilfully and strategically apply this knowledge along with their knowledge of words (vocabulary), language structures and literacy knowledge to build meaning.
What do skilled readers do?
- Set a purpose for reading
- Apply knowledge of syntax and grammar
- Make inferences
- Apply vocabulary knowledge
- Use knowledge of text structure
- Monitor understanding
This process is the same whether listening to or reading text. It requires understanding at the word, sentence, and discourse levels to generate an accurate representation of text.
When reading, the skilled reader:
- Reads words accurately and fluently,
- Understands the meaning of the words,
- Has sufficient background knowledge,
- Monitors and attends to meaning as they read,
- And focuses attention on critical content.
Archer, A (2022). Background Knowledge: Key to Learning & Reading Comprehension. Oregon RTI Annual Conference. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eU_IWCmz-2M
When we place the Hollis Scarborough’s Reading Rope (2021) beside Sedita’s Writing Rope (2019) it is easy to see the common skills that both Reading and Writing require. For example, students require word recognition skills for transcription, vocabulary for the writing craft, and syntactic & semantic knowledge for text structure and sentence writing etc.
Researchers have proven that Reading, Writing and Oral Language have reciprocal relationships, and support an approach that explicitly, sequentially and cumulatively teach and model the interconnectedness of the skills (Structured Literacy). Shanahan (2017) stated that “About 70% of the variation in reading and writing abilities are shared”, and Graham and Herbert (2010) found that writing about what one is learning, improves comprehension.
The cognitive load required for reading and writing tasks can be reduced through careful consideration when planning units of work, inclusion of carefully crafted lesson sequences that includes explicit instruction of the foundational reading and writing elements. There are many high-quality Australian resources that schools can freely access that meet these criteria e.g. Ochre, Syntax/ Grammar Project, Aero Knowledge Units, etc.
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Instructional Reading & Writing Connections: Language Comprehension Strands |
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Language Comprehension Strand |
Connection to Instruction |
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Vocabulary
Background Knowledge Language Structures Verbal Reasoning Literacy Knowledge |
Explicit, direct & indirect vocabulary instruction – Teach breadth and depth of vocabulary Accessing, building and assessing Background Knowledge Sentence Comprehension – syntax and semantics Levels of understanding e.g. inference, metaphors Print awareness and text structures (phrase, sentence types, paragraphs and text genre. |
The following considerations are important when choosing texts for reading comprehension instruction:
Early Years text selection is driven by ‘learning to read’. It is the instructional focus that drives the text selection i.e. The Word Recognition strand of Scarborough’s Reading Rope.
As students move through the grades, the focus of instruction changes quantitively and qualitatively. Comprehension is increasingly influenced by language comprehension capabilities and as the students move into and beyond upper primary grades, they shift from’ learning to read’ to ‘reading to learn’.
Older primary and secondary students need to be exposed to texts that expose them to academic language and vocabulary that is more abstract, or technical in nature (Tier 3 words). Texts need to include sentences of varied quality, complexity and length, and discourse structures become more varied and complex.
When selecting instructional texts, we should ensure that they:
- Building knowledge,
- Use of academic language/vocabulary,
- Are age/ grade appropriate texts
- Expose students to various genres.
Schema’s & Mental Models in Reading Comprehension
What is a schema?
The term “schema” was first used in psychology with the meaning of “an active organization of past reactions or experiences”. It assumes that written text does not carry meaning by itself. Rather, a text only provides directions for readers as to how they should retrieve or construct meaning from their own previously acquired knowledge. The theory of Schema can be used to help guide students to comprehend a text from the global point of view. Therefore, the roles of Schema theory in comprehension cannot be ignored.
Excerpt from Shuying An (2013) Schema Theory in Reading, Changchun University of Science & Technology, Changchun, China.
Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 130-134, January 2013 © 2013 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Manufactured in Finland. doi:10.4304/tpls.3.1.130-134
Schema refers to all the information we have obtained from our previous experiences and everything we understand and believe about a certain topic. Each person’s schema is different based on the different knowledge they have been exposed to. Schema can include background knowledge of people, places, and experiences. In reading terms, it can refer to all the books that students have listened to or have read, and the different topics that they understand. A schema is the pre-existing link that connects previous knowledge with new knowledge on the quest of meaning making
More information about schemas.
What Is a Schema in Psychology?
What is a Schema in Psychology? Schemas in Memory: Encoding
Learning to read and write – a schema – The Literacy Blog
A Mental Model
A mental model is a type of schema that is a specific, representation of a situation or concept that a reader constructs based on their existing schemas and the information that they discover in a text. A mental model is not stored in memory like schemas, but are constructed in the moment, and are dynamic and adaptable. They help the reader understand new information and problem solve.
Both mental models and schemas are crucial for our ability to understand and interact with the meaning within a text.
How Do Schemas Impact Reading Development?
Reading exposes the reader to new information and experiences, which can lead to the expansion and refinement of their existing schemas. Through building connections between different pieces of knowledge, readers can create more complex and sophisticated schemas.
Mental schemas are essential for reading development because they provide a framework for organizing and understanding information, connecting new knowledge to prior experiences, and ultimately, making reading a more meaningful and engaging experience.
So how does schema building help the developing reader?
Reading Comprehension
Having a well-developed knowledge on a wide range of topics allows students to feel comfortable when engaging with and interpreting new texts. Schemas help readers to:
- Connect new information in a text to their existing background knowledge, making it easier to understand and remember.
- Predict what might happen next in a text or infer information that is not explicitly stated or is separated within the text.
- Help readers interpret the meaning of words, sentences, and entire texts by drawing on their prior knowledge and experiences.
Vocabulary Acquisition
Schemas help readers to:
- Understand the meaning of unfamiliar words by using context clues, their knowledge of morphology & etymology, and their existing topic knowledge.
- Improve the speed and accuracy of word recognition.
How are schemas built?
As teachers we can support the learner by providing experiences to help build background knowledge, and by making frameworks and models visual so that students can see the connections between prior knowledge and the new knowledge that they are gaining.
Schemas are built in a variety of ways. The following are examples of planned opportunities that teachers can use to assist in schematic development:
- Students can read/ listen to books.
- Watch films, documentaries or educational videos on the contextual aspects of a story before reading.
- Plan experiences that assist in connection making i.e. excursions, online excursions, meet and engage in conversations or interviews with knowledgeable others/ guest speakers.
- Introduce new vocabulary and grammar before they begin reading.
- Have children mind map everything they know about a topic to help them demonstrate their schema.
- Use a graphic organiser to help collate what they already know on a topic.
- Question before, during and after reading.
- Explore and research topics online, whilst challenging pervious mental schemas to help the reader refine their existing knowledge.