How do children develop reading fluency?
According to Kilpatrick (2015), automatic and accurate word level reading is achieved through the integration of 3 essential components:
- Phonemic awareness proficiency (Module 2)
- Automaticity with letter / sound knowledge (phonics) (Module 2)
- Repeated opportunity for practice through reading connected text
When a reader is both accurate and rapid, it means that the word levelled reading processes have become automatized and they no longer require conscious attention, freeing up cognitive space for higher order comprehension processes and reading with prosody.
Tier 1 High Quality Fluency instruction?
Beginning readers, (Foundation and Year 1), are still learning to read words accurately. They are developing a growing knowledge of grapheme, phoneme connections (GPC) and are provided with repeated opportunities to practice applying this knowledge to reading word lists, phrases, simple sentences, and decodable texts.
Students will develop fluency along a continuum. To ensure that they have the required skills to become a fluent reader, instruction must be explicit, sequential and cumulative. It is essential that they have:
- Phonemic proficiency which refers to the automatic identification, isolation and manipulation of sounds in words,
- Letter naming fluency (LNF) refers to a student’s ability to quickly and accurately name letters.
- Word reading fluency (WRF) refers to the ability to decodes words instantaneously and quickly.
- Oral reading fluency (ORF) refers to accurately reading text passages aloud with prosody.
For students who are confidently reading connected text with some proficiency (Year 2 and beyond), fluency instruction can be conducted using any passage, short story, poem or play. Instruction for these students will focus heavily on improving the rate at which they read, and inclusion of appropriate expression (prosody).
The National Reading Panel (2000) recommended that for students with strong phoneme/ grapheme knowledge and phonemic proficiency, repeated reading, shared reading and paired partner reading were effective evidence-based approaches to build fluency (NICHD, 2000). We will unpack these and further fluency strategies next.
How to select text for fluency lessons
It is recommended that texts chosen for fluency instruction, particularly in the early years, should correspond with the elements that have been explicitly taught, and the student’s progression through the phonics scope and sequence. These are texts that students can read with few errors. As with beginning readers, the focus of fluency instruction for older readers is on rate and prosody rather than accuracy.
Dr Tim Rasinski has also suggested that there is a growing body of evidence that supports older children reading more challenging material when practicing repeated reading. When discussing one such study he shared that,
“…..many of the listeners know that repeated readings have a kid read a text more than once as a great fluency builder. But what Steve found was when the kids made the greatest progress, when the material they were asked to read repeatedly was above, was at their frustration level, was at a level that we probably would not normally recommend for them. And yet here they are practicing it, and I think it was the idea of practice and support that allowed them to handle a more challenging piece and in doing so you know they were able to accelerate their progress in reading. So it really this whole notion of fluency is beginning to challenge our notion of what’s the appropriate text for kids” (Rasinski, T, (2021) Episode 62, Melissa & Lori Love Literacy, June 22, 16.39).
To dive deeper into text selection read the following educator resource from Five from Five Choosing texts for fluency instruction and intervention – Five from Five
There are many high-quality readymade resources available for fluency instruction.
Links to some freely available resources are attached here for your reference:
Achieve the Core Fluency Packets Achievethecore.org :: ELA / Literacy – ELA / Literacy Lessons
Achievethecore.org :: Fluency Resources
Tim Rasinski IRA07Tim_Rasinski_2.pdf
Wonders Fluency Assessment Grade 1-6 Wonders Resources Wonders Oral Fluency Assessment 1-6.pdf – Google Drive
https://fivefromfive.com.au/choosing-texts-for-fluency-instruction-and-intervention/
Readworks texts Take a tour of ReadWorks – ReadWorks | K12 Reading Instruction that Works
Yr 1 Decodable Texts: http://www.freereading.net/wiki/Decodable_passages.html
What text can be used to assess fluency?
Whilst there are many quality fluency assessments available, any unseen, year level appropriate text can be used for assessment and monitoring. However, chosen text should contain phonic code that has previously been taught. For example, an unseen decodable reader, list of decodable sentences or even a list of words beginning readers.
Evidence based fluency instruction and strategies to support fluency acquisition
In this section each strategy has been briefly described, before it is supported by videos demonstrating the strategy and links to resources that allow you to dive deeper into how it can be used.
Paired/ Partner Reading
Paired/ Partnered reading is a strategy to help students build fluency. In the paired/partner reading two students read the same passage aloud to each other. When partnering students, the teacher may choose to:
- Partner more fluent readers with less fluent readers or,
- Partner students who read at the same level, to reread a story/text that they have had modelled for them.
Students may be asked to read the text out loud, simultaneously, or one student will read aloud while the other listens, whilst providing support and feedback as needed, before the roles are reversed.
Clear routines need to be established so that students understand the step-by-step process. Paired reading can be used with any book. They can take turns reading by sentence, paragraph, page or chapter. The text selection will depend upon the student’s reading level, resilience and stamina.
This strategy can also be used when working in small groups or on a one-on-one basis.
Paired/partner reading – Five from Five
Paired Reading | Reading Rockets
Video 35: Partner Reading (REL Southeast) https://youtu.be/qV15vc3jT0Y
Assisted Audio Reading
Audio-assisted reading is an individual or group reading activity which requires students to read aloud along with an audio recording i.e. audiotape, audiobook, tablet, or another mobile device. This strategy provides students with an auditory model of fluent and expressive reading. It is essential that students have a copy of the text in front of them so they can read it aloud, not just listen.
As students build confidence and reading skills develop, they can attempt to read the same text without the support of the recording. Students can even record their own reading (before and after), providing them with an opportunity to see how much their reading has improved. Celebrating success, motivates and is the route for further success!
Whilst audio-assisted reading provides an excellent model for fluent expressive reading, it does not have the benefit of feedback. It does, however, allow them to practice reading when there is no adult available to read with them.
Audio-Assisted Reading | Reading Rockets
Audio-assisted reading – Five from Five
Storynory – Audio Stories for Kids
Getting started with OverDrive Read
Libby App: Free ebooks & audiobooks from your library | by OverDrive
Epic Books | 40,000+ Digital Books for Kids
Audiobooks for Dyslexia & Learning Disabilities | Learning Ally
Reader’s Theatre
Reader’s theatre is a fun and engaging activity that assists reading fluency development by providing students with an opportunity to collaborate, to present an oral reading of a script, that is adapted from literature, plays, or other written texts. The best scripts for reading theatre include a lot of dialogue.
Through engaging with a script students are able to practice oral expression. Memorisation of their part is not required but they will reread the script several times, building familiarity with the language used, the structure of the script, and appropriate expression to make their performance engaging.
Reader’s Theater | Reading Rockets
Readers theatre – Five from Five
Readers’ Theatre & Fluency Passages – Decodable Readers Australia
Timed Repeated Reading
Timed repeated readings, when done properly, is an effective, evidence based instructional practice for improving reading fluency and for monitoring reading fluency development. The goal of timed repeated readings is to improve all aspects of fluency which ultimately leads to improved comprehension.
Texts chosen for this activity should be familiar to the reader and able to be read with 95% accuracy. It is recommended that at least four repetitions of the same text (Repeated Reading) or a similar text (‘Varied Practice’) be completed.
During a repeated reading lesson, the student reads the text aloud. If the student makes an error or pauses for longer than 5 seconds, the teacher reads the word aloud, and the student repeats it correctly before continuing to read.
Goal setting for each pass through the text, accompanied with positive timely feedback, allows for optimal effectiveness of this type of instruction. Previewing unknown words prior to reading, cueing students to focus on reading at a natural pace, and encouragement to self-monitor for meaning, allows students to focus on their goal and their reading progression.
If a timer is used, the student should be reminded that they need to read accurately with expression, whilst observing the rules of punctuation, and reading at a natural pace i.e. Speed is not the goal!
Further information about Timed/Repeated Reading and how to implement it in your classroom can be found in the links below.
Timed Repeated Readings | Reading Rockets
Repeated reading – Five from Five
Timed Repeated Reading
Timed Repeated Readings | Reading Rockets
Repeated reading – Five from Five
Everything You Wanted to Know about Repeated Reading | Reading Rockets
Choral Reading
Choral reading is a teaching strategy that enhances reading skills and promotes fluency. Students read aloud in unison with a whole class or group with the teacher often leading the way. Choral reading helps build students’ fluency, self-confidence, and motivation. When students are reading aloud together, those that may ordinarily feel self-conscious or nervous, have built-in support group to assist them. Resources for choral reading linked below.
Choral Reading | Reading Rockets
https://youtu.be/o_-z8d0sRUA Grade 1
https://youtu.be/rQFlnAukEFs Grade 3
Echo Reading
Echo reading is a reading strategy designed to help students develop expressive, fluent reading. It can also be used to assist children to decode words.
In an echo reading lesson, the teacher will read a short section of text, and after having it modelled by their teacher, the students will echo it back, mimicking the inflections and expressions whilst reading. Students should be able to see the text as it is modelled, and when it is their turn to read/ echo it back. The teacher may choose to use a phrase, a sentence or short paragraph, even a line of a poem or song. Echo reading provides students with a strong scaffold for oral reading and allows for quick positive and corrective feedback. It is great strategy for beginning and struggling readers who need to learn how the words in a text are pronounced, chunked and flow together. Echo reading is also an effective strategy when working with English language learners.
Teach Your Student to Read: Echo reading for decoding and fluency
Shared Reading
Shared Reading is an instructional approach in which the teacher explicitly models the strategies and skills of proficient readers, including fluency and expression. Shared reading is generally a whole-class or small-group activity. It is an interactive read aloud where the students join in and share the reading of a book while guided and supported by a teacher. The teacher encourages students to actively participate by asking questions, inviting predictions, engaging students in discussions about the text. Depending on the purpose of the lesson students can also engage in choral reading and echo reading during a shared reading lesson. Teachers often use oversized books with enlarged print and illustrations, however texts on interactive whiteboards are also effective tools for this strategy. A variety of texts, such as narrative stories, songs, poems, instructional texts,informational texts etc can be used for a shared reading lesson.
Shared Reading | Reading Rockets
The Power of Shared Reading: Building Connections and Learning Together | Voyager Sopris Learning
Poetry
Poetry improves fluency by providing a structured, rhythmic text with elements like rhyme, beat and meter, which naturally encourage readers to pay attention to voice inflection, pitch, and pacing.
Songs
Songs improve fluency by providing a repetitive, rhythmic, and melodic structure. It encourages natural practice with pronunciation, phrasing, and expression. Songs can support the development of students’ ability to “read like they speak”.